Cognitivism in Practice

In education, we are guided by a number of psychological principles which attempt to define how individuals learn.  Although educators generally do not subscribe to only one learning theory, the principles gathered from a variety of resource define a teacher’s pedagogy and overall philosophy regarding student learning.   It is these resources that guide educator’s instructional practices and approach to curriculum development.  Last week I explored the relevance of behaviorism in modern education.  This week I will delve into the theories of cognitive learning and how these principles correlate to instructional strategies utilized in today’s classrooms. 

Cognitive learning theory was initially developed during the 1950’s as a direct response to the principles of behaviorism (Cherry, 201 2, p. 1).   Where behaviorism asserts that learning is acquired through conditioned responses to stimuli that can be manipulated through positive or negative reinforcement, cognitivism, maintains that the human brain is similar to a computer processor.  Information is obtained through a variety of mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving ("Cognitivism," 2012, p. 1). This information is then used to create mental schema or a conceptual framework to process and create meaning for the learner. 

The concept of schema development and mental processing found within cognitive theory, lends itself to a number of instructional strategies and technology tools. Tools such as cueing and questioning are memory devices educators can utilize to trigger information, prior knowledge and memory progress (Pitler, et al, 2007).   In order to facilitate cueing, one can utilize concept mapping or advance organizers.  These cognitive tools allow learners to represent knowledge in a graphic manner.  It is a tangible representative of the mental schema’s that is created within the brain, and allows students  to generate ideas, to design a complex structure, to communicate complex ideas to aid learning by explicitly integrating new and old knowledge,  to assess understanding or diagnose misunderstanding(Robertson et al, 2007).  Presently, there are a number of technology resources that allow students create a multitude of concept maps.  Microsoft Word has developed SmartArt inserts which provide users with a selection of concepts mapping tools.  In addition, websites such as Cacoo and Grapholite, educators and learners can create virtual maps which are easily accessible during instructional sessions and presentations.

Another common cognitive tool similar to cueing and advances organizers relates to summarization, and note taking.  Both of these tools require the learner to organize and synthesize information into a logical and systematic document (Pitler, et al, 2007).  In terms of note taking, similar technology tools utilized in concept mapping can be applied.  As stated these graphic organizers can be developed utilizing both virtual software and Microscoft Office software.  Educators can also create PowerPoint presentations with key words and phrases removed, thus requiring students to fill in the blanks. This variation on note taking allows educators to differentiate for students who may require additional support or processing time.  Summarization is the process of synthesizing key concepts and ideas into a short concise statement.  Pitler, H., Hubbard, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K, (2007) recommends u     sing rule based strategies, summary frames and reciprocal teaching strategies  in order to facilitate summarization process. Through the use of tracking tools and auto summarization tools within Microsoft Word, users are able to implement and demonstrate rule based strategies. 

Through the use of these tools, technology resources and other cognitive learning principles, educators can develop concrete and meaningful resources for their students.  Learners are able to organize, recall and employ information with greater ease and proficiency.

References

Cherry, K. (2012). What Is cognitive psychology? Retrieved September 16, 2012, from http://psychology.about.com/od/cognitivepsychology/f/cogpsych.htm

Cognitivism. (2012). Retrieved September 16, 2012, from http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html

Pitler, H., Hubbard, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with      

classroom instruction that work. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Robertson, B., Elliot, L., & Robinson, D. (2007). Cognitive tools. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging   

perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved September 16, 2012, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

Behaviorism in Practice

This week I explored the role of behaviorism in modern education and how it relates to current instructional practices and technology tools.  In particular, I research the role behaviorism plays in the reinforcement of behavior and completion and monitoring of homework. Although behaviorism principles are perceived to not be widely used in school, in reality they play a critical role in many intervention programs, behavior modification systems, and general instructional techniques.  Initially developed by theorists such as Pavlov, Skinner and Watson, behaviorism can be defined as a developmental theory that measures observable behaviors produced by a learner’s response to stimuli (Standridge, 2002).   Specific behaviors responses to stimuli can either be reinforced or extinguished depending on the feedback the learner receives.  As a result, behaviorism can play a vital role developing basic skills and foundations of understanding in all subject areas and in classroom management.

As mentioned, behavior can be shaped depending on the positive or negative reinforcement one receives.  The concept and application though of positive reinforcement is often a contentious debate amongst educators.  For many educators, the act of positively reinforcing behaviors students should automatically be demonstrating, constitutes as form of bribery. What we need to realize is that reinforcement is a natural motivator within of our lives.  We would not invest in work, obey laws, or engage with others socially if we did not received some sort of reinforcement whether that is intrinsic or extrinsic (Kansas, 2012).  According to John Hattie (2008), reinforcement “was among the most powerful influences on achievement, acknowledges that he has "struggled to understand the concept" (p. 173).

Recently, though the term reinforcement has been replaced with the concept of feedback.  Both of these principles are rooted in the idea that in order to positively impact student behavior and performance, students must receive timely and meaningful responses from adults. (Wiggins, 2012, p. 10). In order though for feedback to be considered meaningful one should:  name only behaviors that have actually occurred, say what you see, not how you feel, and avoid naming some students as examples for others (p. 10).  To accomplish this within a classroom setting teachers can utilize a number of technology tools. According to Pitler, H., Hubbard, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K, (2007) spreadsheets, word documents and electronic rubrics can assist teachers in communicating and reinforcement student behavior and effort. Electronic rubrics assist in defining a set of behaviors and proficiency levels that a teacher expects from a student or group of students. Utilizing word documents, teachers can generate point sheets, behavior plans and contracts, and reward tickets.  This information can then be recorded and displayed using a spreadsheet which can graph the data in a variety of ways (Pitler, et al, 2007).  By graphing data and recording information, it allows students to have a visual indicator of progress which can subsequently result in internalization and reflection on ones skill and behavior. When you use these three tools in conjunction with one another, it allows a teacher to engage in an open, constructive, and purposeful dialog with students.

According to Robert Marzano, research has shown that homework is one of the least effective instruction tools within a teacher’s tool box (Marzano, 2001).  Even though homework may not be the best approach to instruct students on new skills, it does help in support the drilling of mastered skills to ensure that they are maintained.  This concept of drilling skills through repetitive practice aligns with a number of behaviorism principals. Similar to feedback, homework provides teachers with a wonderful opportunity to incorporate technology resources. Teachers again can utilize spreadsheets in order to record and track student progress (Pitler, et al, 2007).  When presented as a visual within the classroom, students receive immediate feedback and can gage what areas they need to improve upon.  The internet is another resource teachers can incorporate to assign homework.  Through blogs, wikis, podcasts and web quests, teachers can create an interactive learning environment that challenges students to apply critical thinking skills and 21st century learning.  Teachers can also use websites that will drill students on fact families, phonemic skills, comprehension skills, and a multitude of academic areas.  Through expanding ones definition of homework, teachers are able to create a learning environment that extends beyond the brick and mortar setting.

References

Hattie, J. (2012, September). Know thy impact. Educational Leadership, 70(), 18-23. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/sept12/vol70/num01/Know-Thy-Impact.aspx

Hattie, J. (2008). Visible Learning. New York, NY: Routledge.

Marzano, R., Norford, J., Paynter, D., Pickering, D., & Gabby, B. (2001).  A handbook for classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Pitler, H., Hubbard, E. R., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using Technology with Classroom Instruction that Work. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Standridge, M. (2002). Behaviorism. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved on September 9, 2012 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

University of Kansas. (2012). Positive reinforcement. Retrieved from http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/?q=behavior_plans/classroom_and_group_support/teacher_tools/positive_reinforcement

Wiggins, G. (2012, September). Seven Keys to Effective Feedback. Educational Leadership, 70(), 10-16. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/sept12/vol70/num01/Seven-Keys-to-Effective-Feedback.aspx